Table Of ContentJosé M. Alvarez-Suarez Editor
Bee Products -
Chemical and
Biological
Properties
Bee Products - Chemical and Biological Properties
José M. Alvarez-Suarez
Editor
Bee Products - Chemical and
Biological Properties
Editor
José M. Alvarez-Suarez
Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud
Universidad de Las Américas
Quito
Ecuador
ISBN 978-3-319-59688-4 ISBN 978-3-319-59689-1 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-59689-1
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017953371
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Contents
Part I Honey
1 Botanical Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Estefanía Sánchez Reyes and José Sánchez Sanchéz
2 Sensory Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Silvia Sánchez Durán and José Sánchez Sanchéz
3 Chemical Composition of Honey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Celestino Santos-Buelga and Ana M. González-Paramás
4 Honey Health Benefits and Uses in Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Hana Scepankova, Jorge A. Saraiva, and Letícia M. Estevinho
Part II Propolis
5 Phenolic Composition of Propolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Celestino Santos-Buelga and Ana M. González-Paramás
6 Propolis and Geopropolis Volatiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Maria Graça Miguel and Ana Cristina Figueiredo
7 T he Chemical and Biological Properties of Propolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Weam Siheri, Sameah Alenezi, Jonans Tusiimire,
and David G. Watson
Part III Royal Jelly
8 C hemical Composition of Royal Jelly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Xiaofeng Xue, Liming Wu, and Kang Wang
9 V olatile Compounds of Royal Jelly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Maria G. Miguel and Soukaïna El-Guendouz
v
vi Contents
10 Royal Jelly: Health Benefits and Uses in Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Manuel Viuda-Martos, José A. Pérez-Alvarez,
and Juana Fernández-López
Part IV Bee Pollen
11 Chemical Composition of Bee Pollen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Adriane Alexandre Machado De-Melo and Ligia Bicudo de
Almeida-Muradian
12 H ealth Benefits and Uses in Medicine of Bee Pollen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Adriane Alexandre Machado De-Melo and Ligia Bicudo de
Almeida-Muradian
Part V Honey Bee Venom
13 Chemical Composition of Bee Venom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Sok Cheon Pak
14 Health Benefits and Uses in Medicine of Bee Venom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Sok Cheon Pak
Part I
Honey
Chapter 1
Botanical Classification
Estefanía Sánchez Reyes and José Sánchez Sanchéz
Contents
1.1 Melissopalynological Analysis 3
1.1.1 Palynology: A Young Science—Applications 3
1.1.2 The Pollen Grain 4
1.1.3 Pollen Morphology 5
1.1.4 Methodology 12
1.2 Monofloral, Polyfloral and Honeydew Honey 15
1.2.1 Honeydew Honey 17
References 18
1.1 Melissopalynological Analysis
1.1.1 Palynology: A Young Science—Applications
In 1944, Hyde and Williams coined the term palynology to name the science respon-
sible for the study of pollen grains and fungal spores. It was from the middle of the
twentieth century onwards that the study of these particles progressed considerably,
thanks to the appearance of electron microscope (Knoll and Ruska 1932) which
improved the resolution and magnification reached with the optical microscope at
the beginning of the seventeenth century.
Size or type, number or position of apertures or even sporoderm ornamentation
of pollen grains and fungal spores can be used as taxonomic characters for the
identification, differentiation and classification of plant species or fungi they are
E.S. Reyes (*) • J.S. Sanchéz
Hispano-Luso Institute for Agricultural Research (CIALE), University of Salamanca,
Villamayor Campus, C/Río Duero N°12, 37185 Villamayor (Salamanca), Spain
e-mail: [email protected]
© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 3
J.M. Alvarez-Suarez (ed.), Bee Products - Chemical and Biological Properties,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-59689-1_1
4 E.S. Reyes and J.S. Sanchéz
coming from. For that reason, the study of pollen grains and fungal spores has its
application in disciplines apparently as disparate as vegetal taxonomy, paleopaly-
nology (study of palynomorphs present in different sediments for paleoclimatic and
paleoecological reconstructions), aeropalynology (airborne pollen and fungal spores
content), medicine (related to allergies) or even in forensic palynology, agronomy
(control of crop pollination or phytopathogen detection, among others), biodeterio-
ration, etc. and of course, the subject that concerns us in this book, melissopalynol-
ogy (study of pollen content and fungal spores in honeys and other hive products).
In honey, pollen grains come mainly from the plant species foraged by honey
bees (Ohe et al. 2004), so that palynological studies provide a good fingerprint of
the plant species where the honeys come from (botanical origin).
However, we could find pollen grains in the nectar as a consequence of secondary
(pollen from the inside of the hive), tertiary (inclusions of pollen grains during the
extraction process) and quaternary (aerial contamination) enrichment (Corvucci
et al. 2015). As such it appears exactly in Directive 2014/63/EU “additional pollen in
honey can come from pollen on bees’ hair, from pollen in the air inside the hive and
from pollen that was packed in cells by bees and released as a result of the accidental
opening of those cells during the extraction of honey by food business operators”.
On the other hand, the entire pollen spectrum is consistent with the flora of a particu-
lar region depending thus on the agricultural and forest conditions where a honey was
produced, giving an idea of the geographical origin (Ohe et al. 2004). In that sense,
markers of geographical origin are generally pollen grains found in lower percentage
as Conceição Silva and Ribeiro Dos Santos (2014) and Corvucci et al. (2015) reported.
Quantitative and qualitative analysis are carried out in order to determine the botani-
cal and geographical origin of honeys, royal jelly, bee pollen and propolis, which con-
tribute to the quality control of hive products (together with sensory analyses). In
addition, they allow the identification of possible fraudulent adulteration or contamina-
tion and provide important information on honey extraction and/or filtration.
1.1.2 The Pollen Grain
The pollen grain or microgametophyte is the male germ element responsible for the
fertilization in flowers and subsequent seed formation. It is the male gametophyte of
seed plants (spermatophytes) and it is formed in the androecium of the flower, com-
posed of stamens (microsporophylls) consisting of a filament and the anther. Anthers
are usually two-lobed. Each anther lobe develops two pollen sacs or microsporangia.
Pollen sacs are composed of sporogenous tissue formed by a mass of cells called
pollen mother cells or arquesporium, which undergo reduction division (meiosis).
The four haploid cells generated form a tetrad within the mother cell until their
maturation.
Inside each of these microspores, an uneven mitotic division occurs, generating
two morphologically and functionally different nuclei: the vegetative nucleus, larger
in size, with vacuoles and reserves, is responsible for the formation of the pollen tube
1 Botanical Classification 5
and it performs a nutritional function for the generative nucleus (which could be
placed in an eccentric position), smaller and fusiform, which will generate (through
mitosis) two sperm nuclei or male gametes.
Simultaneously to the formation of the generative and vegetative nuclei, they will
make their own wall, so that the mother cell wall degenerates. Subsequently, the wall
is thickened and it is possible to differentiate between two layers: an external or exine
and an internal or intine (that is generated after the aforementioned), which give pol-
len grain a great resistance against the adverse atmospheric conditions to which it
will be exposed, thus avoiding possible dehydration.
Once the pollen grains reach this stage of development, they will be dissemi-
nated thanks to dehiscence of the anther, which will occur in response to certain
environmental conditions. In general, pollen grains are released in isolation (monad),
although sometimes, in some species, they are released in groups of 4 (tetrad), as in
the case of the family Ericaceae and even in groups of 16 grains (poliads) in the
genus Acacia Mill., or in pollinia as occurs in Orquidaceae and Asclepiadaceae.
1.1.3 Pollen Morphology
A specific terminology, accepted internationally by palynologists, is used for the
determination and description of the microscopic characteristics of pollen grains.
Below is a summary of the main pollen characteristics that form the basis for the
identification of pollen grains: polarity and symmetry, size and color, shape, sporo-
derm, ornamentation and apertural system.
1.1.3.1 Polarity and Symmetry
As indicated above, pollen grains are three-dimensional structures (with volume),
so they may have polarity and symmetry. If within a tetrad, we analyze a monad
individually (Fig. 1.1) we can define the zone that is closest to the center of the tet-
rad as the proximal pole, and the distal pole as that one furthest from the tetrad. The
line connecting the two poles, passing through the center of the monad and the tet-
rad, coinciding with the axis of rotation of an imaginary ellipsoid, will be called the
polar axis. The equatorial diameter corresponds to the perpendicular axis to this
polar axis that crosses the grain by its middle part.
We say a pollen grain is in polar view, when the polar axis coincides with the
optical axis of the observer. However, an equatorial view of a pollen grain is one in
which the equatorial plane is directed towards the observer.
Erdtman (1952) defined as apolar those grains in which no pole is seen once liberated
from the anther, whereas the polar ones present these zones more or less differentiated.
Within the latter, we differentiate the isopolar grains, when the equatorial plane deter-
mines two polar zones more or less similar, and the heteropolar ones, in which the poles
are clearly different either in shape, ornamentation or apertural system.
