Cultural Anthropology, 13th Ed.

483 Pages·2010·61.36 MB·English

by  William A. Haviland

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13e
Cultural Anthropology
The Human Challenge
WILLIAM A. HAVILAND
University of Vermont
HARALD E. L. PRINS
Kansas State University
BUNNY MCBRIDE
Kansas State University
DANA WALRATH
University of Vermont
Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States
iii
Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge, © 2011, 2008 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
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Dedicated to our parents who provided each of us with
a nourishing environment, inspiring guidance, and an
appreciation for cultural heritage. All of them fostered in
all of us an eagerness to explore, experience, and enjoy
other cultures, past and present.
Putting the World
in Perspective
A
lthough all humans that we know about are capable
of producing accurate sketches of localities and re-
gions with which they are familiar, cartography (the craft
of map making as we know it today) had its beginnings in
16th-century Europe, and its subsequent development is
related to the expansion of Europeans to all parts of the
globe. From the beginning, there have been two problems
with maps: the technical one of how to depict on a two-
dimensional, flat surface a three-dimensional spherical
object, and the cultural one of whose worldview they
reflect. In fact, the two issues are inseparable, for the par-
ticular projection one uses inevitably makes a statement
about how one views one’s own people and their place in
the world. Indeed, maps often shape our perception of
reality as much as they reflect it.
In cartography, a projection refers to the system of in-
tersecting lines (of longitude and latitude) by which part
or all of the globe is represented on a flat surface. There
are more than a hundred different projections in use to-
day, ranging from polar perspectives to interrupted “but-
terflies” to rectangles to heart shapes. Each projection
causes distortion in size, shape, or distance in some way or
another. A map that correctly shows the shape of a land-
mass will of necessity misrepresent the size. A map that is
accurate along the equator will be deceptive at the poles.
Perhaps no projection has had more influence on the
way we see the world than that of Gerhardus Mercator, who
devised his map in 1569 as a navigational aid for mariners.
So well suited was Mercator’s map for this purpose that it
continues to be used for navigational charts today. At the
same time, the Mercator projection became a standard for
depicting landmasses, something for which it was never in-
tended. Although an accurate navigational tool, the Merca-
tor projection greatly exaggerates the size of landmasses in
higher latitudes, giving about two thirds of the map’s sur-
face to the northern hemisphere. Thus the lands occupied
by Europeans and European descendants appear far larger
than those of other people. For example, North America
(19 million square kilometers) appears almost twice the
size of Africa (30 million square kilometers), while Europe
iv
Putting the World in Perspective v
is shown as equal in size to South America, which actually The Robinson Projection, which was adopted by the
has nearly twice the landmass of Europe. National Geographic Society in 1988 to replace the Van der
A map developed in 1805 by Karl B. Mollweide was one Grinten, is one of the best compromises to date between
of the earlier equal-area projections of the world. Equal- the distortions of size and shape. Although an improve-
area projections portray landmasses in correct relative ment over the Van der Grinten, the Robinson Projection
size, but, as a result, distort the shape of con tinents more still depicts lands in the northern latitudes as proportion-
than other projections. They most often compress and ally larger at the same time that it depicts lands in the
warp lands in the higher latitudes and vertically stretch lower latitudes (representing most Third World nations)
landmasses close to the equator. Other equal-area projec- as proportionally smaller. Like European maps before it,
tions include the Lambert Cylindrical Equal-Area Projec- the Robinson Projection places Europe at the center of the
tion (1772), the Hammer Equal-Area Projection (1892), map with the Atlantic Ocean and the Americas to the left,
and the Eckert Equal-Area Projection (1906). emphasizing the cultural connection between Europe and
The Van der Grinten Projection (1904) was a com- North America, while neglecting the geographic closeness
promise aimed at minimizing both the distortions of size of northwestern North America to northeastern Asia.
in the Mercator and the distortion of shape in equal-area The following pages show four maps that each convey
maps such as the Mollweide. Although an improvement, quite different cultural messages. Included among them is
the lands of the northern hemisphere are still emphasized the Peters Projection, an equal-area map that has been ad-
at the expense of the southern. For example, in the Van opted as the official map of UNESCO (the United Nations
der Grinten, the Commonwealth of Independent States Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization), and a
(the former Soviet Union) and Canada are shown at more map made in Japan, showing us how the world looks from
than twice their relative size. the other side.
The Robinson Projection
The map below is based on the Robinson Projection, which projections. Still, it places Europe at the center of the map.
is used today by the National Geographic Society and Rand This particular view of the world has been used to identify the
McNally. Although the Robinson Projection distorts the rela- location of many of the cultures discussed in this text.
tive size of landmasses, it does so much less than most other
INUIT
IÑUPIAT
ESKIMO NETSILIK INUIT
INUIT
YUPIK
ESKIMO TLINGIT
SCOTS
INUIT TORY
BELLA COOLA NASKAPI (INNU) ISLANDERS DUTCH
CREE
KWAKIUTL OJIBWA ABENAKI MONTAGNAIS (INNU)
BLACKFEET MALISEET
ARAPAHO CROW IROQUOIS MI’KMAQ FRENCH CROAT
POMO SCNHH. OPEASYHIEUONTNNEEE LAKOTOAMAHA AMISH PEQUOT PENOBSCOT BASQUES
MORMONS UTE
S. PAIUTE ORTHODOX JEWS
HOPI NAVAJO CHEROKEE
PUEBLO COMANCHE MEXICANS
(TEWA, ZUNI) APACHE CANARY
ISLANDERS
YAQUI
GOMERANS
HAITIANS
HUICHOL AZTEC
MAYA PUERTO RICANS
HAWAIIAN JAMAICANS TUAREG
ZAPOTEC
CARIBBEAN
YORUBA
BAULEFON BENIN
MENDE
IBIBIO
IGBO
SHUAR KPELLE
YANOMAMI GA EGBU
YAKO
CANELA ASHANTI
MUNDURUCU
SHERENTE
CINTA-LARGA
MEKRANOTI KAYAPO
KAYAPO
SAMOAN PITCAIRN INCA KUIKURO
ISLANDERS QUECHUA NAMBIKWARA JU/’HOA
TAHITIANS
RAPANUI AYMARA BUSHM
AYOREO
BUSHMAN
MAPUCHE
YAGHAN
vi
SAAMI
YUPIK
ESKIMO
CH RUSSIANS
SLOVAKIANS
MONGOLIANS
CROATS SERBS CHECHENS
BOSNIANS UYGHUR
TURKS UZBEK
TAJIK
KURDS
JAPANESE
KOHISTANI
BAKHTIARI TIBETANS
HAN CHINESE
PASHTUN
AWLAD ALI
BEDOUINS
BAHREIN
MOSUO TAIWANESE
KAREN
TRUK
SHAIVITE
NUER TIGREANS
ORUBA NAYAR
DINKA AFAR SOMALI
BENIN KOTA AND VEDDA
IBIBIO AZANDE TURKANA MKUALRDUIMVEBSA TODA AND ACEH WAPE PINGELAP ISLANDERS
MBUTI NANDI BADAGA KAPAUKU ENGA
KO KIKUYU MINANGKABAU TSEMBAGA
HUTU MAASAI
AND TUTSIGUSII TIRIKI SOLOMON ISLANDERS
HADZA BALINESE ARAPESH
TROBRIANDERS
DOBU
JU/’HOANSI
BUSHMAN
ABORIGINAL
MAN SWAZI AUSTRALIANS
ZULU
BASUTO
MAORI
TASMANIANS
vii
The Peters Projection
The map below is based on the Peters Projection, which has does show all continents according to their correct relative
been adopted as the official map of UNESCO. While it dis- size. Though Europe is still at the center, it is not shown as
torts the shape of continents (countries near the equator are larger and more extensive than the Third World.
vertically elongated by a r atio of 2 to 1), the Peters Projection
AUSTRIA
GREENLAND GERMANY
ICELAND DENMARK
USTNAITTEEDS NETHENROLARNWDASY S
BELGIUM
UNITED
KINGDOM
CANADA
IRELAND
FRANCE
SWITZERLAND
ITALY
SPAIN
UNITED STATES PORTUGAL SLOVENIA
O TUNISIA CR
OCC
OR
M
ALGERIA
THE
BAHAMAS
MEXICO
WESTERN
CUBA HDAOIMTIINICAN REPUBLIC SAHARA MAURITANIA
BELIZE JAMAICA MALI NIGER
GUATEMALA HONDURAS SENEGAL
EL SALVADOR NICARAGUA GAMBIA
COSTA RICA GGUUIINNEEAA-BISSAU GERIA
NI
PANAMA VENEZUELA FRENCH GUIANA SIERRA LEONE
LIBERIA
COLOMBIA IVORY COAST
BURKINA FASO
GUYANA GHANA
SURINAM TOGO
BENIN
ECUADOR
EQUATORIAL GUINEA
BRAZIL
PERU A
BOLIVIA
NA
PARAGUAY
CHILE
ARGENTINA
URUGUAY
ANTARCTICA
viii