Table Of ContentThe aim of the Oxford Classical Monographs series is to publish books Prayer in
based on the best theses on Greek and Latin literature, 11I1cienht istory,
!IIld !IIlcient philosophy examined by the Faculty Board of Literae
Humaniores.
Greek Religion
SIMON PULLEYN
CLARENDON PRESS · OXFORD
1997
Oxford University Press, Great Clarendon Street, Oxford o:i-2 6DP
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Pmyer in Greek religion/Simon Pulleyn.
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Based on the author's thesis ( doctoml }.
Includes bibliographical references and indexer.
,. Greece-Religion. i. Pmye,-Greece. l. Title. 11. Serie,.
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Acknowledgements vii
and encouragement: John Baines, Jonathan Barnes, Jeremy Black,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Tom Braun, Stephanie Dalley, Richard Fynes, Oliver Gurney,
Sir Hugh Lloyd-Jones, Anna Morpurgo-Davies, Ernest Nichol
son, Richard Parkinson, Peter Parsons, John Penney, Alexis San
derson, Christiane Sourvinou-Inwood, Elizabeth Tucker. Oxford
University Press kindly gave permission for me to reproduce, in
I HAVE noticed, in reading the acknowledgements pages of other an expanded form as part of Chapter 6, material which first
books, that, whilst many writers acknowledge debts of one sort or appeared as an article in Classical Quarterly.
another to their universities, not many mention the schools they On a persona] note, I owe to my parents far more than I could
attended as children, I, on the other hand, feel very fortunate to ever possibly say. I also wish to record my gratitude to my late
have been able to attend Leeds Grammar School, where I learned grandfather, a bequest from whom allowed me to build up a
much from Geoff Caseley, John Jordan, Philip Milner, Christopher complete working library whilst still a graduate student. Finally,
Slater, Peter Spivey, John Taylor, Geoff Thompson, Anthony I thank my wife Jane, to whom I dedicate this book. She has
Verity, and Walter Welburn. I am reminded almost daily what helped me enormously at every stage. -rl71- rot -raii-ra lovty 'Tf'a.v-r'
a huge debt I owe to them all. My greatest debt, however, must be a' yopEv, w;
to Nicholas Richardson who supervised the dissertation on which
S.J.P.
this monograph is based. He is a man who combines a rare
Merton College, Oxford
kindness and patience with the most astute critical acumen. I
September 1996
also wish to thank my old tutor at Balliol, Jasper Griffin. As an
undergraduate, I benefited enormously from his erudition and
generosity and have continued to do so ever since. I am also
grateful to Oswyn Murray whose suggestion it was in the first
place that I should work on prayer. He gave me some very useful
advice at the beginning of my research. The Warden and Fellows
of Merton College elected me to a Senior Scholarship and then to
a Lectureship. I am very grateful to them on both counts. I have
enjoyed in Merton the pleasantest surroundings in which to work
and some very congenial company. John Gould and Robert Par
ker examined the thesis. I thank them both for many important
insights. Robert Parker, in particular, has been extremely gener
ous with his time and help during the process of revising the
thesis for publication as a monograph. Without him, this book
would have been immeasurably the worse. Daniele Aubriot,
author of the recent Priere et conceptions religieuses en Grece anci
enne (Lyons, 1992), a magisterial volume almost three decades in
the writing, has also given me much encouragement and the
benefit of her vast acumen. I also wish to thank my friend Marcus
Smith for many helpful interdisciplinary discussions. I have
benefited on countless occasions from his extraordinary clarity
of mind. The following have also been generous with their time
CONTENTS
Texts and Abbreviations
X
Glossary of Terms
XIV
I. Prolegomena t
2. Reciprocity and Remembrance 16
3. Thanks and Praise
39
4. Prayer and Supplication
56
j. Curses and Justice 70
6. Magic and Names
96
7. Prayer and the Cult of the Dead II6
8. The Language of Prayer
132
9. Sitz im Leben 156
10. Prayer, Reason, and Piety 196
Appendices
I. Literary and Epigraphic Attestations of Some
Common Words in Greek Prayers 217
2. Aspect in Greek Prayers 221
Select Bibliography 227
Index Locorum 235
General Index 243
Index of Greek Words 245
Texts and Abbreviations
Xl
All translations are my own, unless otherwise stated. Thev are
TEXTS AND ABBREVIATIONS
intended to help the Greekless reader and make no preten~e to
literary merit.
ABBREVIATIONS
TEXTS
The abbreviations used for ancient authors and their works are as
All references are to the Oxford Classical Text, except for the
in the Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd edn. Abbreviations of
following:
periodicals are those used in L'Annee philologique.
Loeb The following abbreviations are used for certain other works:
Andocides; Antiphon; Apollodorus; Athenaeus; Dinarchus; AA B. Merritt and J. Traill, The Athenian Agora, xv
Diodorus Siculus; Greek Anthology; Hippocrates; Hyperides; (Princeton, 1974)
Isaeus; Isocrates; Pausanias; Pliny, Natural History; Plutarch; ANET J. B. Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relat
Theophrastus. ing to the Old Testament" (Princeton, 1955)
Aubriot D. Aubriot-Sevin, Priere et conceptions religieuses
Teubner
en Grece ancienne (Lyons, 1992)
Bacchylides (ed. Snell); Lucian (ed. Jacobitz); Pindar (ed. Snell Ausfeld C. Ausfeld, 'De Graecorum Precationibus Quaes
Mahler; Boeckh's numeration); Plato (ed. Wohlrab); Strabo (ed. tiones', NeueJahrbucher, Suppl. 28 (1903), 505-47
Meineke). Burkert W. Burkert, Greek Religion (Eng. trans., Oxford,
1985)
Other
Burkert, HN W. Burkert, Homo Necans (Eng. trans., Berkeley
Akaeus (ed. Page); Callimachus (ed. Pfeiffer (Pf.) ); Sappho (ed. and Los Angeles, 1983)
Page); Theocritus (ed. Gow). Lyric Poets are cited from Page's CEG P. A. Hansen, Carmina Epigraphica Graeca (Berlin,
Poetae Melici Graecae (PMG). The Iambic and Elegiac poets are 1983)
cited from West's Iambi et Elegi Graeci2 (West). For fragments of Corlu A. Corlu, Recherches sur les mots relatifs a l'idee de
Hesiod, see Merkelbach and West, Fragmenta Hesiodea (MW). la pn·ere, d'Homere au:x tmgiques (Paris, 1966)
Tragic fragments are from Nauck, Tragicorum Graecorum Frag DT A. Audollent, Defi:xionum Tabellae (Paris, 1904)
menta~ (N2) for Euripides, and Radt's Tragicorum Graecorum DTA R. Wunsch, Defixionum Tabellae Atticae = IG iii/3,
Fragmenta (TGF) for Aeschylus and Sophocles. Comic fragments appendix (Berlin, 1897)
are taken from the Kassell-Austin Poetae Camici Graeci (PCG). Faraone C. A. Faraone and D. Obbink (eds.), Magika
The fragments of Menander are either from the OCT of Sand Hiem (Oxford, 1991)
bach or from Kock, Comicarum Atticorum Fragmenta (K). The JG Inscriptiones Graecae, various editors (1877- )
Presocratics are cited from Diels-Kranz Die Fragmente der Vor ILLRP A. Degrassi (ed.), Inscriptiones Latinae Liheme
sokmtiker (D-K). For the fragmentary historians, Jacoby's Die Rei Publicae, i2 (Florence, 1965)
Fragmente der griechischen Historiker (FGH) is used. Menander ISE L. Moretti, Inscrizione storiche ellenistiche
Rhetor is cited from D. A. Russell and N. G. Wilson, Menander (Florence, 1967 and 1976)
Rhetor ( Oxford, 1981). Details of epigraphic sources are in the list LSAM F. Sokolowski, Lois sacrees de l'Asie Mineure
of abbreviations below. (Paris, 1955)
Xll Texts and Abbreviations Texts and Abbreviations xiii
LSCG F. Sokolowski, Lois sacrees des cites grecques (Paris, Van Straten, F. T. Van Straten, 'Gifts for the Gods', in H. S.
1969 'Gifts' Versnel (ed.), Faith, Hope and Worship (Leiden,
LSJ H. G. Liddell, R. Scott, and H. S. Jones, A
1981), 65-151
Greek-English Lexicon9 (with Suppl.) (Oxford, Versnel H. S. Versnel (ed.), Faith, Hope and Worship
1968) (Leiden, 1981)
LSS F. Sokolowski, Lois sacrees des cites grecques, Sup
plement (Paris, 19'62)
ML R. Meiggs and D. M. Lewis, A Selection of Greek
Historical Inscriptions to the End of the Fifth Cen
tury BC' (Oxford, 1988)
Nilsson, GR M. P. Nilsson, Geschichte der gr£echischenR eligion,
i3 (Munich, 1967), ii' (Munich, 1961)
Nock A. D. Nock, Essays on Religion and the Ancient
World, ed. Z. Stewart, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1986)
Norden E. Norden, Agnostos Theos (Leipzig and Berlin,
1923)
OF 0. Kern, Orphicorum Fragmenta3 (Zurich, 1972)
OH A. Athanassakis, Orphic Hymns (Atlanta, 1977)
PGM K. Pteisendanz, Papyri Graecae Magicae, 2 vols.
(Leipzig and Berlin, 1928-31; 2nd edn. 1973-4)
RE A. Pauly, G. Wissowa, and W. Kroll, Real-Ency
clopiidie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, 83
vols. (Stuttgart, 1894-r980)
Richardson N. J. Richardson (ed.), The Homeric Hymn to
Demeter (Oxford, 1974)
Rohde E. Rohde, Psyche (Eng. trans., London, 1925)
Rudhardt J. Rudhardt, Notions fondamentales de la pensee
religieuse et actes constitutifs du culte dans la Grece
classique" (Paris, 1992) ,
SEG Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum (Leiden,
1923- )
'SGD' D.R. Jordan, 'A Survey of Greek Defixiones Not
Included in the Special Corpora', GRBS 26
(1985), 151-97
SIG 3 W. Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionum Grae
carum3 (Leipzig, 1915-24)
TLG Thesaurus Linguae Graecae (CD-ROM, Univer
sity of California at Irvine)
Van Straten F. T. Van Straten, 'Did the Greeks Kneel before
their Gods?', BABesch 49 (1974), 159-89
Glossar_v of Terms xv
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
LATIN
da-quia-dedi: give because I gave
da-quia-dedisti: give because you gave
Where practical, quotations in foreign languages in this book are da-quia-dedit: give because (s)he gave
accompanied by an English translation. These are not meant to da-ut-dem: give so that I will give
be literary, but basic idiomatic English. In some contexts, for da-ut-dare-passim: give so that I shall be able to give
example the technical discussions of the significance of the moods da-ut-des: I give that you might give
and tenses of the Greek verbs used in prayer, it is not possible to
give an English translation because the morpho-semantic cate
gories simply do not e.xist in English. Certain Greek words do
recur extremely frequently in the text. Where the English equiva
lent of the word is not in dispute, it is given in brackets after its
first appearance. The reader with no Greek may find it helpful to
know how to pronounce these words in his head as he goes along.
I therefore give a list of the commonest words, their approximate
meaning, and, in parentheses, their English transliteration. All
vowels are short unless marked long with a macron. Final vowels
should be sounded (e.g. mole has two syllables not one). Anyone
who wishes to learn how to read the Greek alphabet should
consult W. S. Allen, Vax Groeca3 (Cambridge, 1991), 177ff.
apa:
curse/prayer (ara)
dpdoµcu: I curse/pray (araomai)
~Mli: come! (elthe)
nlxri:p rayer (eukhe)
Evxoµai: I pray (eukhomai)
tKEr,{a: supplication (hiketeia)
iKETEuw: I supplicate (hiketeuo)
KAv9i:h ear! {kluthi)
}i{(1aoµai: I entreat (lissomai)
}i,T'TJ:e ntreaty (lite)
µ6k come! (mole)
[w[a: guest-friendship (xenia)
1rpoaKvviw: I abase myself or I raise a hand to my lips (proskuneo)
1Tp0'1KIJVT/a(tsth: e noun for the foregoing) (proskunesis)
xdp,s: favour shown/received (reciprocal relations) (kharis)
I
Prolegomena
This is a book about Greek prayer as part of Greek life. No
attempt is made to use Greek evidence to produce a definition
of prayer valid for all religions. It is far from clear that the search
for universal definitions of cultural phenomena is the highest goal
of study. 1 However similar any two cultures may be, those simi
larities ought not to be emphasized to the exclusion of all else.
Too much schematization leads to distortion. If two societies
share the same practice or institution, then, to use a mathematical
analogy, that factor may eventually, after due consideration of its
intrinsic interest, be discounted as a lowest common denomina
tor. The societal remainder, the set of practices that distinguish
cultures from each other, often turns out to be the most revealing.
For example, if one began one's search for a universal defini
tion of prayer with the attempt to formulate a definition that
would fit Greek religion and Judaism between 750 and 350 BC,
the task would be extremely difficult. Even something as banal
and general as 'Prayer is an act of communication with a higher
power' will not really fit the bill. Although true of most Greek
and most Jewish prayers, it obscures many differences. First, the
Greeks were polytheistic; the Jews were not. Greeks prayed to
heroes; for the Jews, Jahweh was the only proper recipient of
prayer. Secondly, in a monotheistic world, it is much easier to
develop a concept of a unified will of God. Alongside this goes
the Jewish concept of sin as a departure from the covenant with
their creator God. The Greeks did not share this sense of sin.
Furthermore, although there was plenty of intellectual reflection
about prayer in Greece, the Greeks had no Isaiah to remind them
that prayer had to be more than just an empty calling upon the
name of the Lord. 2 There are countless other telling differences
1 The best-known attempt at a universal synthesis must be F. Heiler, Prayer
trans S. McComb (Oltford, 1932). 2 Isaiah 29: 13-14.
2 Prolegomena Prolegomena 3
to which one could point. One can see how undesirable it is, in too well aware that literature is, in many respects, stylized. Can
order to arrive at a definition that will serve in all cases, to strip we be certain, for example, that linguistic features present in the
away precisely those details which give each prayer-tradition its literary sources would also have figured in real-life prayers? As it
individuality. Surely we ought to be doing the reverse. Compara happens, we are fortunate to have quite a large body of epigraphic
tive evidence is used in this study, but never as part of a quest for material containing prayers. I have examined these and drawn up
the key to understanding a11p rayer. It is used either by way of a table of common words used in prayer, giving wherever possible
contrast or else, in the case of evidence from other Indo-Eur literary and epigraphic attestations of each (App. 2). It will be
opean cultures, to throw light on the ancient roots of Greek seen that most common prayer-words are attested epigraphically
practices. If we try to give an account of Greek prayer on its as well as in the literature. I am only too aware that some inscrip
own, specialists in other cultures will be able to see how it differs tions are themselves consciously artistic productions-mimicking
from the practices of the peoples with whom they are familiar. to a greater or lesser degree the language of the high literature.
For the most part, this book uses a synchronic rather than a None the less, such compositions, if carved on stone at a sanc
diachronic approach. I have not set out to explain the origin of tuary, surely have a perfect right to be considered as part of the
prayer but rather how it works at a given period. 3 That period, realia of Greek religion. Consider, for example, the Delphic
however, spans some four centuries, from Homer to the fourth paeans to Apollo. These are highly wrought pieces. The reason
century. This may seem somewhat eccentric for an allegedly they were set down was to preserve them for future generations.
synchronic study. However, our evidence for Greek prayer is There is every reason to believe that they were part of the
unevenly scattered. Some periods and places have produced Delphic cult. They should be taken as genuine examples of cletic
hymns. The fact that they stand in a more literary tradition than
more evidence than others. When we speak of Greek prayer we
the average ex-voto is interesting evidence of the way that life and
are actually talking about the practices of many independent city
art cannot be neatly separated out. It should not be seen as
states. Only fifth-century Athens provides enough evidence for a
detracting from the authenticity of the material.
narrow study limited to one place and one time. But if we limited
If a word used by a tragic writer does not have an epigraphic
ourselves to that area, we should have to ignore, among other
parallel, this does not mean that it was not a genuine part of the
things, Homer; and that, as I hope to show, would leave a huge
real-life vocabulary of prayer. There are some things which one
gap in our understanding. Even if one were only looking at fifth
simply would not expect to find on a stone. For example, the
century Athens, one would still have to take into account the
worshipper who says l>.IU( 'come') is likely to do so either in the
possibility that later, non-Athenian sources might preserve gen
context of a public ritual or in some private situation when he
uinely old and relevant testimony. In retrospect, Greek prayer
earnestly desires the god's presence. He would have no reason to
seems to have altered very little over the period under considera
carve it on a stone. Curiously, the word KAii8,( 'hear') is epigra
tion. One is therefore not guilty of gross misrepresentation, I
phically attested (in late texts), when one might expect it to be
believe, if one cites a passage of eighth-century Aeolic-lonic
found only in spoken contexts. It is significant that of the three
Homer alongside a piece of fifth- or fourth-century Attic Lysias.
epigraphic attestations of KAiilht hat are known to me, two appear
One might wonder about the legitimacy of using literary evi
in hymns that have been carved on stone for posterity and one
dence (e.g. Euripides) in a historical study of Greek prayer. Since
appears in a grave-inscription that is clearly imitating Homer. 4
so much of this study relies on literary evidence, it ought to be
We can thus be confident, on the strength of this epigraphic
made clear at the outset why it has been used. Scholars are only
4
,.).f,IJ,-lt. t. 37,451, 5. I 15, IO. 278, 16. 514, 23. 770; Od. 2. 262, 3. 55, 4. 762, ;.
3 I have, however, allowed myself to comment on prayer formulae which may 445, 6. 324, 9. 528. Other parts: Aesch. Chu. 139, 332. Epigraphic attestation: SEG
be part of an ancient Indo-European tradition. For some, this may seem to be of viii. 548. 35, 550. 19 (Egyptian hymns to Isis from the Jst cent. AD); SEG xxix. uo2
value merely as a curiosity. (an undated Lydian epitaph, clearly imitating JI. 23. 19).
4 Prolegomena Prolegomena 5
corroboration, that we are not following a chimaera when discuss overall about the value of literary evidence for historv. 5 In the
ing words found in the literature. However, the epigraphic evi chapters that follow, this question will be taken up more fully.
dence can only take us so far. For example, we shall be arguing that Bearing all this in mind, we shall now consider what ought to
JMU is not found in prayers accompanying sacrifice. Since all our be the scope of a study of Greek prayer. What is a prayer in
evidence for prayers accompanying sacrifice during the classical Greece? Aubriot, in her recent comprehensive survey, defines
period comes from literature, the inscriptions cannot help us. We Greek prayer as: ' ... toute demarche par laquelle l'homme, ou
a a
have to assume that the literature is correct. Quite simply, it is the bien s'addresse la divinite, OU bien tente de recourir des
only source we have for certain questions. In cases where no puissances superieures pour obtenir un resultat' ('any procedure
epigraphic examples are given, the reader must understand that by which man either addresses a divinity or tries to appeal to
superior powers in order to obtain a result'). 6 She is unwilling to
I am obliged to base my remarks on the only evidence available.
say that prayer is simply a request. 7 This is partly because she
Beyond this narrow question of diction, however, there is
feels that the category of prayer should include other, not neces
always the possibility, when one uses fiction as a source for
sarily verbal, acts which, being directed towards the gods, imply
history, that one is dealing with a view of the world which, whilst
an attempt to communicate with them. An example, she suggests,
not wholly unimaginable, is nevertheless somewhat unreal. For
might be the silent gesture of raising the hand to the lips to greet
example, one could easily form the impression, from a superficial
a god when standing before his statue. 8 She would also like to
perusal of Greek tragedy, that Greek women were powerful and include loud ritual shrieks and dances. 9
terrifying. That assumption would be as mistaken as the belief
This is a very broad approach. It is indeed clear that there was
that Elizabethan women were all like Lady Macbeth. The same
great variety in the formulation of speech addressed to the gods.
kind of caveat should apply to religious matters. Homer's Iliad,
We have only to look at Homer to appreciate this. Some addresses
for example, has almost nothing to say about hero-cult. That
are very formulaic and have a tripartite structure of invocation
does not mean that it was unknown in the eighth century. Rather, argument-request.10 Then there is a group where the structure is
he has omitted details of it because, one assumes, it would detract not so rhetorical, but where we still have elaborate invocations
somewhat from the pathos of death if heroes could look forward which the poet explicitly refers to as prayers. 11 Simpler still,
to some special status afterwards. Similarly for prayer, it is clear there is an abundance of optatives which are presumably meant
that artistic intention and dramatic conventions must be taken ultimately for the attention of the higher powers. 12 A few of these
into account if we are not to be misled by the imaginative litera
ture. The central thesis of this book is the importance of xo.pis in 5 If carried too far, this sort of scepticism can lead one to the view that the
ancient world contained two distinct things called 'literature' and 'life'. In fact,
Greek prayer. That word is often translated 'grace' or 'favour'. In
the tv-m must have interacted in a very complex manner. Can it really have been
fact, it refers to a whole nexus of related ideas that we would call the case that people's religious lives were not to some considerable extent shaped
reciprocity. When one gives something to a god, one is giving by myths, recitations of Homer, theatre, etc.? Similarly, their literature must
reflect the civilization that created it. 6 Aubriot '4
xapir in the sense that the offering is pleasing; but equally one is 7 Ibid. r09f. , - •
8
storing up for oneself a feeling of gratitude on the part of the god, I~id. 91; not cited there but relevant are Lucian, Demosthenis /ncomium 49;
which is also xap1s. The whole two-way relationship can be called Ap1u0l e(ma)s , daM-qeut.i a4-d. e2d8i.; If. 1. 37ff., 503 ff.; cf. 8. 236ff. (b) da-quia-deAdiusbtir;i otI l. 221:
one of xapis. Although our sources for the workings of xap1s are 45fff., 5. 115ff., ro. 278ff., 284ff., 16. 233ff.; Od. 20. 98ff.; cf. 20. u2ff. (c) da
predominantly literary, the universal cohesion of the evidence q11ia-dedit;l l. 1.5. 372ff.; Od. 4. 762ff., 17. 24off.
11
across the different literary genres means that we can be confident Less fonnulai<: prayers: Il. 2. 412ff., J. n6ff., 351 ff., 6. 305ff., 476ff., 7. 179£.,
z,nff., 10. 462ff., 23. 770, 24. 308££.; Od. 2. 262ff .. J. 55ff., JSoff., 5. 445ff., 13.
that we are not dealing with a chimaera. It is well known that, 356 ff., 20. 61 ff.
tragedy, comedy, rhetoric, and history can all take a different u Simple wishes: II . .1.. 371 f., 4. 288 f., 363, 7. 132 ff., 8. 538ff., 22. 41, 23. 650; Od.
stance with regard to religion. None the less, xapis is the same 2. 145, J. 346, 4. 34rff., 7. 311 ff., 8. 465{., 13. 41 f., 213, 14. 53 f., 440f., 15. 112, 180,
341 f., 17. I3Jff., ;i51ff., 354f., 475f .. 494, 597, 18. ruff., 202ff., 235££., 20. 169ff.,
for all of them. We ought not, therefore, to be unduly pessimistic 199f., 24. 376ff., 402.
